CARTA Glossary
Word | Definition | Related Vocabulary |
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Neoplasm |
A tumor mass, either benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer), that is composed of cells that have lost their regulatory checks and multiply without control or do not undergo pre-programmed cell death. |
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Neoteny |
The delay or slowing of development. Compared to other primates, humans are considered neotenous due to the retention of physiological traits typical of juveniles such as facial features (globular skull shape, thinness of skull bones, reduction of browridge, flattened face, larger eyes), limb length ratio, and behavior. |
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Nerve | A bundle of fibers that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord, and impulses from these to the muscles and organs. | |
Nervous system |
The network of nerve cells, fibers, and associated glia cells that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body. |
Glia (neuroglia) |
Neural circuit |
A neural circuit is a functional entity of interconnected neurons that is able to regulate its own activity using a feedback loop. |
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Neural progenitor cell (NPC) |
Cells that are capable of dividing a limited number of times and have the capacity to differentiate into a restricted repertoire of neuronal and glial cell types. |
Glia (neuroglia), Neuron |
Neural stem cell (NSC) |
A self-renewing, multipotent cell that generates the neurons and glia of the nervous system of all animals during embryonic development. Some persist in the adult vertebrate brain and continue to produce neurons throughout life. |
Glia (neuroglia), Nervous system, Neuron |
Neurobiology |
The study of the morphology, behavior, and other qualities of the nervous system. |
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Neuroendocrine |
The interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, particularly how the brain regulates hormone production and secretion. The neuroendocrine system is responsible for regulating various physiological processes such as growth, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and mood. It functions through a network of signals, where neurons release chemicals that influence hormone secretion, and hormones in turn affect brain function and behavior. |
Endocrine system, Hormone, Nervous system |
Neurogenesis |
The process by which neural stem cells produce neurons. |
Neural stem cell (NSC) |
Neurogenetics |
The study of the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. |
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Neurolinguistics |
A branch of linguistics that examines the connection between language and the structure and functioning of the brain. |
Linguistics |
Neurological |
Relating to the anatomy, functions, and organic disorders of nerves and the nervous system. |
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Neuromodulators |
A subset of neurotransmitters that regulate diverse populations of other neurons. |
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Neuron |
A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses and forms synapses with other cells. |
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Neuropeptides |
Small protein-like molecules that act as neurotransmitters or modulators in the brain and nervous system. They are involved in regulating a wide range of physiological processes, including pain, stress response, mood, appetite, and reproduction. |
Protein |
Neuroplasticity |
The ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections through growth and reorganization. These changes include new neural connections and cortical remapping resulting from learning, environmental influences, practice, and psychological stress. |
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Neuropsychology |
The study of the relationship between behavior, emotion, and cognition and brain function. |
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Neuroscience |
A multidisciplinary science that is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the nervous system. It encompasses the evolution, development, cellular and molecular biology, physiology, anatomy and pharmacology of the nervous system, as well as computational, behavioral and cognitive neuroscience. |
Nervous system |
Neurostransmitter |
A type of chemical messenger that transmits signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another “target” neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. |
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Neurotransmitter |
A chemical released by nerve cells to send signals to other cells. |
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Neurotransmitter receptors |
A membrane receptor protein that is activated by a neurotransmitter. |
Neurotransmitter |
Neurotypical |
Not displaying or characterized by autistic or other neurologically atypical patterns of thought or behavior. |
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Never |
A bundle of fibers that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord, and impulses from these to the muscles and organs. |
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NFkB |
A family of proteins (transcription factors) crucial for regulating various biological processes, including immunity, inflammation, cell growth, and apoptosis, and is activated by diverse stimuli like cytokines and bacterial products. |
Apoptosis, Cytokines, Immunity, Inflammation, Protein |
Niche construction |
A form of ecological inheritance in which organisms alter the environment in ways that affect the developmental context and selection pressures acting on subsequent generations. |
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Nicotine |
A natural alkaloid and insecticide produced by several plant species (tobacco and jimson weed). It also functions as a central nervous system stimulant as an analog of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. |
Central nervous system (CNS), Neurotransmitter |
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor |
A receptor polypeptide that responds to the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, and also responds to nicotine. |
Neurotransmitter, Nicotine |
Nitrogen (N) |
A common chemical element with the atomic number 7. Most nitrogen on earth exists as inert gas (N2). |
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Non-coding RNA (ncRNA) |
RNA that is not translated into a protein. Important ncRNAs include transfer RNAs (tRNAs) and ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), as well as small RNAs such as microRNAs, siRNAs, piRNAs, snoRNAs, snRNAs, exRNAs, scaRNAs and the long ncRNAs such as Xist and HOTAIR. |
microRNA (miRNA), Protein, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Non-Fiction |
Any story purported to tell factual information. |
Story |
Non-Hormonal Basis of Maternal Care |
The finding that care giving behavior can occur in female rats and mice that have not reproduced themselves through repeated exposure to infants. |
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Non-Invasive Neuroimaging |
The use of various techniques, such as Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, to image the structure, function, or pharmacology of the nervous system. |
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) |
Non-seasonal depression |
Depression that is not related to changes in the seasons. |
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Nootropics |
So called “smart drugs” or cognitive enhancers that are claimed to improve cognitive function. E.g., Modafinil. |
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Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) |
A hormone and neurotransmitter that mobilizes the brain and body for action. |
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Novel (disease) |
A new strain of a disease that has not been previously identified in a species. |
de Novo, Species |
Novel treatments |
New or innovative therapies, medications, or medical procedures that have been developed to address health conditions or diseases. These treatments are typically characterized by their uniqueness, often offering new mechanisms of action, improved effectiveness, or fewer side effects compared to existing options. Novel treatments may emerge from advancements in medical research, technology, or scientific understanding. |
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Nrf2 |
A protein (transcription factor) that acts as a master regulator of cellular responses against oxidative stress, regulating genes involved in antioxidant defense, detoxification, and other processes. |
Protein |
Nuclear Pore Complex | Protein and ribonucleoprotein transport channels in the nuclear envelop of eukaryotic cells. Evolved ~ 1.5 billion years ago. While the primary role of NPCs is to regulate nucleo–cytoplasmic transport, recent research suggests that certain NPC proteins have additionally acquired the role of affecting gene expression at the nuclear periphery and in the nucleoplasm in metazoans. | |
Nucleating sites |
Atmospheric areas that generate particulate matter PM2.5 from dissolved ammonia from agricultural nitrogen pollution. |
Agricultural nitrogen pollution, PM2.5 |
Nucleic acid |
One of the four classes of major biomolecules. The overall name for DNA and RNA, which are composed of nucleotides. DNA is double-stranded and more stable while RNA is single-stranded and less stable. |
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Nucleotides, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Nucleoporin 98 (Nup98) | A protein coding gene that plays a role in the nuclear pore complex assembly and/or maintenance. Associated diseases range from Myelodysplastic Syndrome and Acute Monocytic Leukemia. | Nuclear Pore Complex |
Nucleoside |
Glycosylamines corresponding to nucleotides lacking a phosphate. |
Nucleotides |
Nucleotides |
Molecular building blocks for DNA and RNA Specifically, they consist of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The type of sugar, either deoxyribose or ribose, determines if the resulting nucleic acid is DNA or RNA. |
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Nucleic acid, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Number |
Exact symbolic quantifier that designates the cardinality of a collection of objects. It is abstract (i.e., it transcends perceptual modalities), relational, and operable. In its most prototypical case it is associated with the familiar counting sequence ‘1, 2, 3, . . . ’ |
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Numeral |
A sign for a number, such as the Hindu-Arabic digit ‘5’, the Roman ‘V’, or the French word ‘cinq’, that signify the number five. |
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Numerosity |
A scale of measurement for evaluating the numerousness of stimuli (e.g., a collection of discriminable objects) utilized especially by psychophysicists in the mid-20th century, and by means of which an experimenter establishes the cardinal attribute of physical collections of objects. |
Numerousness |
Numerousness |
A property or attribute of a stimulus (discrete quantities) which can be measured by an investigator in units of numerosity. |
Numerosity |
Obesity |
Excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems. Defined as a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30.0 or higher. Obesity rates in the US have reached 42%, up 12% in the last 10 years. |
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Obligate Tool User |
Tool use is a necessity for survival. Tool use is an essential part of being human and we are the only known obligate tool users. |
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Obsidian |
A type of igneous rock occurring as a natural glass formed by the rapid cooling of viscous lava from volcanoes. Sometimes called “volcanic glass.” |
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Obstetric Dilema |
A biological constraint of bipedalism and large fetal brains imposed on the human female pelvis. |
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Odds Ratio (in GWAS) |
The ratio between the odds of individuals having a phenotype associated with a specific allele and the odds of the same phenotype for individuals who do not have that same allele. |
Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS) |
Oldowan (Mode 1) |
A stone tool type characterized by simple “choppers” for pounding, breaking, and bashing. ~2.6 - 1.7 mya. |
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Oldupai Gorge (Olduvai) |
A 48km ravine in the Great Rift Valley in Tanzania that was occupied by hominins such as Homo habilis (1.9 mya) and Zinjanthropus (Australopithecus) boisei (1.8 mya). Today, Oldupai Gorge is an important paleoanthropological site and has been under excavation since 1913, most famously by Mary and Louis Leakey. “Oldupai” is the Maasai word for “the place of the wild sisal.” |
Sisal (Sansevieria ehrenbergii) |
Olfactory Bulb (Brain) |
A neural structure of the vertebrate forebrain involved in sense of smell. |
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Oligodendrocytes (Brain) |
A type of neuroglia that supports and insulates axons in the central nervous system of some vertebrates. |
Axon (nerve fiber), Central nervous system (CNS), Glia (neuroglia) |
Oligo‐anovulation |
Infrequent (oligo-) or absent (anovulation) ovulation. It is a common cause of irregular menstrual cycles and infertility in women of reproductive age. |
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Omnivore |
An organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet of plant, animal, and fungal origin. |
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Ontogenetic phase |
A specific stage or period within an organism’s developmental history, encompassing changes in its phenotype (physical characteristics) and behavior from fertilization to adulthood, influenced by genes, environment, and maternal effects. |
Gene, Phenotype |
Ontogeny |
The origin and development of an organism (from fertilization of the egg to the organism’s mature form). Can also refer to the study of an organism’s lifespan. |
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Open chromatin |
The state of chromatin when DNA is less tightly packed and accessible to transcription factors, RNA polymerase, and regulatory proteins, allowing for gene expression. Open chromatin is found in regions of the genome that are actively being transcribed or are ready to be transcribed in a cell-type specific pattern. |
Chromatin, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Transcription factors |
Operational sex ratio (OSR) |
The ratio of fertile males to fertile females that are ready to mate. |
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Optimism Bias |
An almost universally human cognitive bias that seems to cause individuals to believe that they are at less risk of experiencing a negative event and more likely to experience a positive outcome compared to other people. |
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Optogenetic |
A biological technique that involves the use of light to control gene expression and cellular function in living tissue, typically neurons, that have been genetically modified to express light-sensitive ion channels. |
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Organoid | Cell/tissue culture in vitro that aims to mimic organ structure and function. | |
Orthologous genes |
Genes that are found in different species that evolved from a common ancestral gene and typically retain the same function. |
Gene, Species |
Osteoarthritis |
A chronic disorder characterized by the degradation of cartilage and underlying bone in joints and can lead to severe pain and mobility limitations. |
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Otomi |
A minority ethnic group of central Mexico during the 16th century CE. |
Common era (CE) |
Out of Africa |
A hypothesis proposing the geographic origins of the genus Homo in Africa and migration of anatomically modern humans. These anatomically modern humans would have completely replaced the archaic human populations (Neanderthals, Denisovans, etc.) that had previously left Africa. This hypothesis emphasizes the African origin of our species but allows for the possibility of minor local contributions from archaic populations. |
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Outer Radial Glia |
Found in the outer subventricular zone of the neocortex, outer radial glia preferentially express genes related to extracellular matrix formation, migration, and stemness. |
Extracellular matrix |
Outer Subventricular Zone | A uniquely structured germinal zone that generates the expanded primate supragranular layers. | |
Ovulation |
The timepoint of the menstrual cycle involving the release of an egg from an ovary. |
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Owl monkey (genus Aotus) |
A New World monkey species found in Central and South America. Owl monkeys are nocturnal and have large, round eyes adapted for seeing in low-light conditions, giving them an “owl-like” appearance. Owl monkeys are social animals that typically live in small family groups and form strong pair bonds. They primarily feed on fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. Also known as the “night monkey” and “mirikina.” |
Pair bond, Species |
Oxytocin |
A peptide hormone made by the hypothalamus and stored in the pituitary gland, from which it is released into the blood stream. Oxytocin has many physiological and behavioral functions. It is considered “the love hormone” due to its association with reproduction, social bonding, sexual behavior, childbirth, maternal bonding, and milk production. Oxytocin is also an anti-inflammatory and is associated with sociostasis and longevity. |
Hormone, Peptide, Sociostasis |
Oxytocin receptor |
A protein found on the surface of cells that binds to the hormone oxytocin, triggering various physiological responses. These receptors are primarily located in the uterus, mammary glands, brain, and other tissues involved in reproduction and social interactions. The activation of oxytocin receptors helps coordinate functions like labor, emotional bonding, and even responses to stress. The gene encoding the oxytocin receptor is called OXTR. |
Hormone, Oxytocin, Protein |
Pair bond |
The formation of long-lasting bonds between two individuals. |
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Paired receptors |
Related membrane proteins that have similar extracellular appearance but opposite signaling functions and are found in pairs or clusters primarily on immune cells. |
Protein |
Paleolithic |
A broad prehistoric period during which stone was used to make tools and weapons and is synonymous with Stone Age. During the paleolithic, hunting and gathering (foraging) was the primary subsistence method. The period ended with a flourishing of culture, not only in the manufacture of new stone (and bone tools) and other innovations (such spear thrower, bow and arrow, eyed needle, fishing implements), but also the development of splendid cave art paintings and engravings. Subdivisions:
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Culture, Foraging, Hunting and gathering, Stone Age |
Pandemic |
An epidemic that has spread across regions, including multiple continents or worldwide. |
Epidemic |
Parallel architecture |
A theory of the mental representations (or “data structures”) involved in the language faculty that are organized by phonology, syntax, and semantics. |
Phonology (Linguistics), Semantics (Linguistics), Syntax |
Paranthropus |
A genus of extinct bipedal hominins dating to ~ 2.6 mya to 1.1 mya that lived throughout eastern and south Africa. Their robust cranialdental anatomy suggests an adaptation to a diet of tough vegetation. Possible tool use is indicated by hands adapted for precision grasping. They probably descended from the gracile australopithecine hominids (Australopithecus) ~2.7 million years ago, hence their alternative name, robust australopithecine, and ongoing debate on genus. |
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Parasite |
An organism that lives on or in a host organism at the expense of the host. |
Host |
Parasitism |
A close relationship between two organisms where one benefits at the expense of the other. |
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Parental Behavior |
Any behavior of a member of a species toward an immature conspecific that increases the likelihood that the immature organism will survive to maturity. |
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Parental conflict |
Evolutionary conflict between the sexes arising from differences in optimal parental investment in offspring across a lifetime. |
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Parental effort |
The portion of reproductive effort in form of parenting (protection, feeding, provisioning). |
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Parental Investment |
The investment of resources (time, energy, provisions) into offspring. |
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Parental Investment Theory |
The correlation between parental investment and mate choice where the greater the parental investment the more selective, and the lesser the investment the greater the access to more mates (Trivers, 1972). |
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Parietal Lobe (Brain) |
One of the major lobes in the human brain, roughly located at the upper back in the skull (“crown”). It processes sensory information such as touch, taste, and temperature, spatial senses and navigation (proprioception), and language processing. |
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Paternal investment |
The parental effort of fathers. |
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Paternity |
The state of being a father or the biological relationship between a father and his offspring. |
Father |
Paternity assessment |
The ability of males to assess the likelihood of having sired a particular offspring. |
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Paternity confidence |
A male’s confidence in being the father of one or more offspring. Synonymous with father uncertainty. |
Father uncertainty |
Paternity uncertainty |
Uncertainty about paternity due to female mating behavior. |
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Pathogen |
A bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. |
Bacteria, Virus |
Pathogenesis |
The biological mechanism (or mechanisms) that leads to a disease state and can also refer to the origin and development of a disease, and whether it is acute, chronic, or recurrent. |
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Pathogenicity |
The absolute ability of an infectious agent to cause disease or damage in a host. |
Host, Infectious disease |
Pathophysiology |
Disordered physiological processes associated with disease or injury. |