CARTA Glossary
Word | Definition | Related Vocabulary |
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Peer Review (Academic Publishing) |
The professional critique by other scholars or scientists from the same field that normally takes place before scholarly or scientific papers are accepted for publication. |
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Penile Implants |
Foreign objects embedded beneath the skin of the penis. |
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Peptide |
A short chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A peptide is a short protein. |
Amino acids, Peptide bond, Protein |
Peptide bond |
A covalent chemical bond that forms between two amino acids, linking them together in a peptide or protein chain. It occurs when the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino acid reacts with the amino group (-NH2) of another amino acid, releasing a molecule of water (a process called dehydration or condensation). |
Amino acids, Peptide, Protein |
Perciption |
The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses. |
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Perineum | The area around the anus and genitals. | |
Period synchronization (or menstrual synchrony) |
The phenomenon whereby women appear to synchronize their menstrual cycles. |
Menstrual cycle |
Periovulatory |
Around the time of ovulation. |
Ovulation |
Peripartum depression |
Depression that occurs during pregnancy. |
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Permanent body modification (PBM) |
Intentional permanent or semipermanent alterations of the living human body for reasons such as ritual, folk medicine, aesthetics, or corporal punishment. In general, voluntary changes are considered to be modifications, and involuntary changes are considered mutilations. |
Mutilation |
Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) |
A small, spineless cactus with psychoactive alkaloids (mescaline) that is native to Mexico and southwestern Texas. |
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Phenotype |
Observable traits of an organism that result from interactions between genes and environment during development. |
Gene |
Phenotypic flexibility |
The range of an individual’s reversible variation in behavior, morphology, physiology, and life-history traits in response to changes in their environment. |
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Pheromones |
Molecules that are produced by one individual and have signal value for another individual of the same species. |
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Phonology (Linguistics) |
The organization of the sounds or signs in language. |
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Phosphorylation |
A biochemical process in which a phosphate group (PO4 ³-) is added to a molecule, typically a protein, by an enzyme called a kinase. This addition of a phosphate group often occurs at specific amino acids in the protein, such as serine, threonine, or tyrosine, and it can significantly change the protein’s structure, function, or activity. Phosphorylation is a crucial mechanism of cellular regulation and plays a key role in controlling various cellular processes. |
Amino acids, Protein |
Phylogenetic Tree |
A branching diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species, or other entities, based on their physical or genetic characteristics. |
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Phylogeny |
Historical relationships of species or loci. |
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Physiological trade-off |
A compromise between different physiological needs of body functions. |
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Phytanic Acid |
A branched chain fatty acid produced during the digestion of chlorophyll, especially in foregut fermenting species (ruminants) that consume plant materials. Humans obtain phytanic acid by consuming dairy products, ruminant animals, and some fish. |
Chlorophyll, Foregut fermentation |
Phytanic Acid Metabolism (in humans) |
Eating ruminants (red meat and dairy) creates special demands on detoxifying metabolism as phytanic acid (lipids) from plants eaten by ruminants can be toxic to humans. |
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Piercing |
1. The deliberate creation of a hole in the skin and/or flesh, often to hold an ornament such as an earring. 2. perforation itself. (e.g., “I changed the jewelry in my piercing”). 4. The ornament that is worn in a perforation of the tissue. More accurately described as piercing jewelry, body piercing jewelry, or body jewelry. (e.g., “My piercing fell out”). |
Body jewelry |
Pioneer transcription factor |
A type of transcription factor that can open and bind to chromatin. They control enhancer activation and are important in the recruitment of other transcription factors and in controlling DNA methylation. |
Chromatin, Transcription factors |
Placenta |
A flattened circular organ, primarily of fetal origin, in the uterus of pregnant eutherian mammals, nourishing and maintaining the fetus through the umbilical cord. |
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Placentation |
The process of forming and developing the placenta, the organ that facilitates nutrient and gas exchange between the mother and developing fetus during pregnancy. |
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Plasmodium |
A genus of single-celled organisms that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects. In humans, malaria is caused by multiple species of Plasmodium and transmitted by mosquitos (commonly female Anopheles mosquitos). |
Anopheles Mosquitos, Genus, Malaria, Parasite |
Plasticity (brain) |
The ability of the brain to change and adapt to new information. These changes can involve the establishment of new synapses or new neurons in some regions. |
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Playa de los Muertos |
A village in Honduras occupied from before 700 BCE to ca. 200 BCE. It also refers to the style of figurines produced and used there. |
Before common era (BCE) |
Pleistocene |
A geological epoch from ~2.5 mya to 11.7 kya characterized by a period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archeology. Subdivisions:
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PM2.5 |
A fine particulate matter (particles or droplets less than 3 microns in width) air pollutant that causes haze, reduces air quality, and can cause short- and long-term negative health effects. |
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Pneumococcus |
A bacterium that infects the lungs and sometimes the blood stream. |
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Poised Gene |
The idea that some genes are more easily expressed because of their chromatin state. |
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Polyandry |
A mating system where females regularly mate with multiple males. |
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Polycystic ovaries |
Ovaries that contain a large number of small, fluid-filled sacs called follicles, or cysts, just under the surface. These cysts are usually immature follicles that failed to develop properly during the menstrual cycle and did not release an egg (ovulate). |
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Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) |
A syndrome defined by the presence of two of three of the following criteria: oligo‐anovulation, hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovaries. It is the leading cause of anovulatory infertility and can be debilitating for some people with ovaries. |
Anovulatory infertility, Hyperandrogenism, Oligo‐anovulation, Polycystic ovaries |
Polygenic |
Relating to a trait determined by two or more genes. Most traits of organisms are polygenic. |
Gene |
Polygynandry |
A mating system in which males and females mate with multiple partners. |
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Polygyny |
A mating system where males regularly mate with multiple females. |
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Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) |
A method of copying a specified locus. |
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Polymorphism |
The “many forms,” or genetic variants, of a single gene that exist and are maintained in a population at a frequency of 1% or higher. |
Gene, Variant |
Polysaccharide |
A large, complex carbohydrate made up of many monosaccharides (simple sugars) linked together by glycosidic bonds. |
Glycosidic bond, Monosaccharides |
Polysialic acid |
A homopolymer of sialic acids abundant in the brain and fish eggs and found on certain pathogenic bacteria. |
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POM121 | A gene that encodes for transmembrane nucleoporin, a protein that localizes to the inner nuclear membrane and forms a core component of the nuclear pore complex, which mediates transport to and from the nucleus. | |
Population |
A defined group of similar individuals among whom interbreeding occurs. |
Demography, Gene Flow |
Population bottleneck |
The dramatic reduction in population size, which often results in a loss of genetic diversity. |
Genetic diversity |
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Neuroimaging |
A functional imaging technique used to observe metabolic process in the body. |
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Post-partum amenorrhea (PA) |
Temporary cessation of menstrual cycles after giving birth. |
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Post-translation Modifications |
Alter mature protein. |
Gene |
Posterior Parietal Cortex |
The portion of parietal neocortex that plays an important role in planned movements, spatial reasoning, and attention. |
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Postmenopausal Longevity |
The period of time after a woman has ceased ovulating. This life-stage is unique to humans and not expressed in non-human primates. |
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Postpartum depression |
Depression that occurs after pregnancy. 15% of women experience depression after childbirth, making this the most common complication of childbirth. |
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Power |
The product of work and speed (velocity). |
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Prader-Willi Syndrome |
A genetic disorder usually caused by deletion of part of chromosome 15 inherited from the father, causing imbalance in sex-specific imprinting. Results in behavioral problems, intellectual disability, and short stature. |
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Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) |
A small rodent found across central North America, particularly in prairies and grasslands where they feed on grasses, seeds, and roots. They play a significant role in the ecosystem by dispersing seeds and aerating the soil. Prairie voles are social, live in small colonies, and form strong, monogamous pair bonds with their mates. |
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Pre-frontal cortex (brain) |
The cerebral cortex that covers the front part of the frontal lobe and is linked to complex cognitive behavior, personality, long and short-term memory, decision making, speech, language, and a person’s will to live. |
Cerebral Cortex (Brain), Frontal lobe (brain) |
Pre-Menstrual Syndrome |
Any of a complex of symptoms (including emotional tension and fluid retention) experienced by some women in the days immediately before menstruation. |
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Precuneus region |
A region of the brain involved in self- reflection, spatial awareness, and episodic memory. The precuneus is implicated in several psychiatric and neurological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, and depression. |
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Preeclampsia |
A pregnancy associated disorder characterized by high blood pressure and large amounts of protein in urine, typically accelerating during the third trimester. |
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Preprint (Academic Publishing) |
A version of a scholarly or scientific paper that has not yet been formally peer reviewed. It is freely available before it is published as a finished product in a peer-reviewed scholarly or scientific journal, which often include costly paywalls. It is generally not good practice for news outlets to report on preprinted results because they have not been peer-reviewed. |
Peer Review (Academic Publishing) |
Presynaptic transport |
The transport of vesicles containing neurotransmitters on the presynaptic side prior to release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (chemical synapse). |
Chemical synapse |
Pricking |
Ritual pricking of the prepuce or clitoris to draw a drop of blood. This is sometimes used as a substitute by those seeking to maintain a custom in a minimal way that does not leave lasting damage. |
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Primary motor cortex |
A region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, specifically along the precentral gyrus. It is responsible for the initiation and control of voluntary movements by sending signals to muscles throughout the body, directing them to contract and execute movements. |
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Primary Somatosensory Cortex |
A region of the Neocortex that controls tactile representation from the parts of the body. |
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Primates |
A group of mammals that include humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians. |
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Primatology |
The scientific discipline involving the study of living and extinct primates (monkeys and apes), especially their evolution and behavior. Modern primatology consists of Western and Japanese traditions that developed simultaneously but independently in the 1950s. |
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Prion |
A type of abnormal, pathogenic protein that can cause other, normal, proteins to similarly misfold. Prions are involved in many neurodegenerative diseases, such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), also known as “mad cow disease.” |
Protein |
Prodigy |
A person, especially a young one, endowed with exceptional qualities or abilities. |
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Productivity |
The open-ended ability to combine meaningful linguistic units into new higher order units of meaning: for example, roots, prefixes (e.g. anti-), and suffixes (e.g. -ish) into words, and words (or signs) into phrases and sentences (Kluender, 2020). |
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Progesterone |
A steroid and sex hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis of invertebrates and mammals. |
Embryogenesis, Sex hormones, Steroid |
Prokaryotes |
Unicellular organisms that lack a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle. This definition is now debated as some “prokaryotes,” such as archea (“extremophiles”), are more closely related to eukaryotes. |
Eukaryotes |
Prokayotes |
Unicellular organisms that lack a membrane- bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle. (see Eukaryotes) |
Eukaryotes |
Prolactin |
A protein hormone primarily produced by the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain. It plays a key role in stimulating milk production in females after childbirth. Prolactin also has other functions in both men and women, including regulating reproductive health, immune system function, and metabolism. |
Hormone, Immune system, Protein |
Proliferative phase |
The part of the menstrual cycle phase in which the endometrium, the lining of the uterus, expands. |
Menstrual cycle |
Promotive Factor |
Predictor of positive outcome under most conditions, whether risk is low or high. |
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Promotor |
Region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene. |
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Propofol (Diprivan) |
A short-acting medication, believed to work at least partly via GABA receptors, that is used for the starting and maintenance of general anesthesia, sedation for mechanically ventilated adults, and procedural sedation. Effects include decreased level of consciousness and a lack of memory for events. |
GABA receptors, General anesthesia |
Proprioception |
The awareness of the position and movement of the body. |
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Prosimian |
A group of primates that includes all living and extinct galagos, lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers. They are considered to have characteristics that are more “primitive” (ancestral) than those of monkeys, apes, and humans. |
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Protective Factor |
Moderator of risk or adversity associated with better outcomes particularly when risk or adversity is high. |
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Protein |
One of the four classes of major biomolecules. Proteins are molecules encoded by DNA sequences and composed of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. These range in size from a few amino acids (short peptides) to large molecules (long polypeptides) comprised of thousands of amino acids. |
Amino acids, DNA sequence, Molecule, Peptide bond |
Protein coding sequence |
A section of DNA or RNA that codes for protein. |
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Protein, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Protein-coding sequence |
A section of DNA or RNA that codes for protein. |
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Protein, Ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
Protozoa |
An informal term for unicellular (single celled) eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic. |
Eukaryotes |
pS6 |
A ribosomal subunit that is activated by intracellular cascades and therefore used as a marker for neuron activity. This subunit is physically attached to RNA molecules that are being translated into protein and therefore can also provide information about which genes are expressed in active neurons. |
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Pseudogene |
A gene that has lost its function. Some pseudogenes may be translated into a protein, but typically the protein is inactive. |
Gene, Protein |
Psychological AI |
An approach to machine intelligence that also incorporates other features of human intelligence such as causal reasoning, intuitive psychology, and physics. |
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Psychological Evolutionary Barrier |
The mental equivalent of a physiological evolutionary barrier (such as the difficulty of evolving from an aquatic existence to living on land). A hypothetical concept. |
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Psychopathology |
The study of mental disorders. |
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Psychostimulants |
A broad class of drugs that stimulate sympathetic nerves and whose effects can include increased movement, arousal, vigilance, anorexia, vigor, wakefulness, and attention. Some psychostimulants, especially at high doses and with a rapid route of administration, can produce euphoria, a sense of power and confidence, and addiction. Cocaine is a psychostimulant. |
Cocaine |
Pulmonary Hypertension |
High blood pressure in the blood vessels that supply the lungs. Also affects the right side of the heart. |
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Pulque |
An intoxicating beverage made by fermenting fructose-rich juice collected from the heart of the maguey plant. |
Maguey plant (Agave americana) |
Punctuated Equilibrium |
An evolutionary model in which pronounced change takes place in short bursts followed by periods of evolutionary continuity. Compare with Continuity. |
Continuity (aka Phyletic Gradualism) |
Pup |
The term used to refer to an infant rodent (rat or mouse). |
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Pup Retrieval |
An infant transport behavior in which the mother uses her mouth to gently carry a pup by the back of the neck. Mothers do this if pups crawl out of the nest or if she has to move her pups to a new nest location. In the laboratory, this behavior can be used as an index of maternal motivation because it is a proactive, voluntary response to an infant. |
Pup |
Pyramidal neurons |
A type of neuron found in the mammalian cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and amygdala of the brain. They are the most abundant excitatory cell type and receive both excitatory and inhibitory input. |
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Quantical |
Pertaining to quantity-related cognition (e.g., subitizing) that is shared by many species and which provides biological evolved preconditions for numerical cognition and arithmetic, but is itself not about number or arithmetic. Quantical processing seems to be about many sensorial dimensions other than number, and does not, by itself, scale up to produce number and arithmetic. |
Subitizing |
Quantifier (natural) |
Determiners or pronouns which occur in various degrees in all natural languages and indicate the magnitude of quantities, such as the English ‘few’ or ‘many’. |
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Quantitative |
Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something rather than its quality. |
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Radial Glia |
A primary progenitor cell capable of generating neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Radial glia are defined by their position, morphology, and genetic phenotype. These cells are involved in establishing a temporary scaffold for cortical layer development. |
Basal Radial Glia, Basal Ganglia (Brain), Outer Radial Glia |
Reading-Frame | A way of dividing the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) molecule into a set of consecutive, non-overlapping triplets called codons. | Codon, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) |