CARTA Glossary

Human frontal and parietal lobes form a network that is crucially involved in the selection of sensory contents by attention.

A neuroimaging technique for measuring and mapping brain activity that is noninvasive and safe. The phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is used to generate a signal that can be mapped and turned into an image of brain activity.

A class of membrane proteins that act as receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA and are mostly found on inhibitory neurons.

A number of species of prosimians that are small, nocturnal, and native to continental Africa. Also known as bushbabies. Galagos often nest in tree hollows during the day. Chimpanzees have been observed hunting with “spears” for nested galagos, and they are also hunted by Hadza hunter-gatherers.

A genus of Gram-variable-staining facultative anaerobic bacteria of which Gardnerella vaginalis is the only species.

Inflammation of the stomach and small intestine typically caused by a virus, but can also be caused by bacteria, parasites, and fungi. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

A DNA sequence which encodes a specific function.

The process by which the information contained within a gene (nucleotide sequence) is used to direct protein synthesis and dictate cell function. Nearly all of the cells in the body contain identical genes, but only a subset of this information is used or expressed at any time. The genes expressed in a cell determine what that cell can do.

The total of all genes and their variants (alleles) of a population of a species.

A branch of theoretical population genetics that models the transmission of genes and cultural traits from one generation to the next, exploring how they interact. Also known as “biocultural evolution” or “biological enculturation” (feedback between culture and biology).

A biological characteristic with a heritable basis that improves reproduction and/or survival and results from evolution by natural selection.

Change in allele frequencies, including fixation and loss, by chance.

A version of a DNA sequence that differs from others found at the same locus. For example, the difference can consist in a single base pair (as in single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNP) or in the deletion/insertion of a DNA base(s). See: indel.

A person who is exceptionally intelligent or creative, either generally or in some particular respect.

An approach for “gene mapping” in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs are tested statistically for genetic associations with a phenotype.

The study of genome structure/function.

Characterizing genetic variants at one or more loci.

A hypothesis that offers a simple connectomic scheme based upon the contribution of neurons with long-range axons to conscious processing. Their reciprocal interactions contribute to the formation of a global workspace, broadcasting signals from the sensory periphery to the whole brain, thus yielding “conscious” experience. The GNW hypothesis privileges cortical pyramidal cells with long-range excitatory axons, particularly dense in prefrontal, temporoparietal, and cingulate regions, that, together with the relevant thalamocortical loops, reciprocally interconnect multiple specialized, automatic, and non-conscious processors. Another important feature of this hypothesis is that the GNW activates in a non-linear manner, called ‘‘ignition,’’ upon access to conscious processing. Ignition is characterized by the sudden, coherent, and exclusive activation of a subset of workspace neurons coding for the current conscious content, with the remainder of the workspace neurons being inhibited.

A class of corticosteroids that are involved in stress response and are also a part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system. E.g., Dexamethasone (a synthetic glucorticoid).

A type of a lipid (fat) with an attached glycan that functions to maintain the stability of the cell membrane and to facilitate cellular recognition. Glycolipids are crucial in immune response and tissue formation.

Proteins with enzymatic functions that are involved in adding monosaccharides to other molecules.

An explanation of the post- menopausal life stage of human females whereby the existence of grandmothers serves as a biological and social adaptive advantage for humans. Post-reproductive life stages are non-existent among non-human primates, so it is hypothesized that humans evolved to have grandmothers and grandmothering to have individuals who are free to invest their energy into the offspring of their children. This off-loads the reproductive cost of parenting through social kin-networking, and off-set the resource cost of brain- building as parents are freed to provision resources. Increased resource procurement may reduce the inter-birth interval by allowing for earlier weening, which in turn increases offspring production potential, passes down generational knowledge, and increase social networks. In doing so, the grandmother ensures the survival of her genes in subsequent generations. The extended post-reproduction life stage of grandmothers likely had the added output of producing grandfathers, who also provide benefits to the extended family, as well as their own extended reproductive time line that competes with subsequent generations.

The development and dissemination of crop variants and technology between the 1950s and 1960s that increased agricultural production around the world. Also known as the third agricultural revolution.

The release of polluting gasses resulting from human activity, such as burning fossil fuels that contribute to greenhouse effect.

A rapid-onset muscle weakness caused by an autoimmune response in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the peripheral nervous system. Initial symptoms typically begin in the feet and hands with changes in sensation, pain, and muscle weakness, which then spreads to the arms and upper body of both sides. Sometimes this immune dysfunction is triggered by an infection or, less commonly by surgery, and rarely by vaccination.

A ridge on the cerebral cortex that, along with surrounding sulci (furrows) creates the folded appearance of the brain in humans and other mammals.

A prehistoric stone tool with two faces and is usually made from flint, basalt, sandstone, quartzite, or chert.

One set of unpaired chromosomes.

A map of informative subsets of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) found along a stretch of a chromosome used to identify blocks of genetic variation existing along human chromosomes.

Differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, and health care as experienced by socially disadvantaged populations.

One of two paired chromosomes is affected by a deletion. The other chromosome is intact. 

The abnormal hemoglobin protein in red blood cells (RBCs) that causes RBCs to assume a sickle, or crescent shape.

Sometimes also called “herd protection” or “indirect immunity,” this is when most of a population is immune to a specific contagious disease, which slows its spread to others that are not immune. However, because the level needed to reach this kind of immunity is so high (about 80-90% of the population), it invariably means that a lot of individuals must be infected (and often can die) before herd immunity can be achieved.

Tightly wrapped and inactive chromatin.

Any problem solving strategy that involves the usage of generalizations as mental shortcuts to quickly come to adequate solutions for complex problems.

A digestive process in which cellulose and other polysaccharides are broken down by symbiotic bacteria residing the colon of some mammalian species.

Meaning “tissue-related”, these blood group antigens originally evolved on epithelial cells prior to expression on erythrocytes (red blood cells). ABO is a classic example of a histo-blood group.

A covalent post-translational modification (PTM) to histone proteins which includes methylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitylation, and sumoylation. The PTMs made to histones can impact gene expression by altering chromatin structure or recruiting histone modifiers. 

The current geological epoch, from about 11.7 kya (after the end of the last Ice Age cycle) to the present that is marked by globally warmer and more stable climates.

A classification comprising all living and extinct “Great Apes” and humans.

The genus that comprises the species Homo sapiens, as well as several extinct species classified as ancestral to, or closely related to, humans.

An extinct archaic species of the genus Homo dating to ~2.1 to 1.5 mya. H. habilis means “handy man” and was named so because of its association with stone tools.  H. habilis has intermediate morphology between Australopithecus and Homo erectus. There is ongoing debate if H. habilis should be moved to the Australopithecus genus.  Initial discovery was made by Mary and Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania between 1962 and 1964.

The hominin species comprising all living humans. Meaning “wise man” in Latin, the name was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The earliest fossil evidence of Homo sapiens appears in Africa around 300 kya (see Jebel Irhoud Hominins).

Similarity in DNA sequence or phenotype that has evolved independently.

A signaling molecule in multicellular organisms that contributes to the regulation of physiology and behavior.

A lithic technology cultural period in the Middle Stone Age in Africa named after the Howieson’s Poort Shelter archeological site near Grahamstown, South Africa. Dates range from ~65.8 kya to 59.5 kya. Examples include composite weapons hafted with ochre and gum compound glue and microlith blades, bone arrows, and needles.

The specialized connections composed of axons linking Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area in the human brain and is a major anatomic feature supporting language function in humans.

A subsistence strategy in which most or all food is obtained by foraging and is in contrast to agriculture, which rely mainly on domesticated species.